Botulism is caused by botulinum neurotoxin secreted by members of the genus Clostridium and is characterized by flaccid paralysis, which if not immediately fatal requires prolonged hospitalization in an intensive care unit and mechanical ventilation. Naturally occurring botulism is found in infants or adults whose gastrointestinal tracts become colonized by Clostridial bacteria (infant or intestinal botulism), after ingestion of contaminated food products (food botulism), or in anaerobic wound infections (wound botulism) (Center for Disease Control (1998) Botulism in the United States, 1899-1998. Handbook for epidemiologists, clinicians, and laboratory workers. Atlanta, Ga. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service: downloadable at “bt.cdc.gov/agent/botulism/index.as.asp”. Botulism neurotoxins (BoNTs) are also classified by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) as one of the six highest-risk threat agents for bioterrorism (the “Category A agents”), due to their extreme potency and lethality, ease of production and transport, and need for prolonged intensive care (Arnon et al. (2001) JAMA 285: 1059-1070). Both Iraq and the former Soviet Union produced BoNT for use as weapons (United Nations Security Council (1995) Tenth report of the executive committee of the special commission established by the secretary-general pursuant to paragraph 9(b)(J) of security council resolution 687 (1991), and paragraph 3 of resolution 699 (1991) on the activities of the Special Commision; Bozheyeva et al. (1999) Former soviet biological weapons facilities in Kazakhstan: past, present, and future. Center for Nonproliferation Studies, Monterey Institute of International Studies), and the Japanese cult Aum Shinrikyo attempted to use BoNT for bioterrorism (Arnon et al. (2001) supra). As a result of these threats, specific pharmaceutical agents are needed for prevention and treatment of intoxication.
No specific small molecule drugs exist for prevention or treatment of botulism, but an investigational pentavalent toxoid vaccine is available from the CDC (Siegel (1988) J. Clin. Microbiol. 26: 2351-2356) and a recombinant vaccine is under development (Smith (1998) Toxicon 36: 1539-1548). Regardless, mass civilian or military vaccination is unlikely due to the rarity of disease or exposure and the fact that vaccination would prevent subsequent medicinal use of BoNT. Post-exposure vaccination is useless, due to the rapid onset of disease. Toxin neutralizing antibody (Ab) can be used for pre- or post-exposure prophylaxis or for treatment (Franz et al. (1993) Pp. 473-476 In B. R. DasGupta (ed.), Botulinum and Tetanus Neurotoxins: Neurotransmission and Biomedical Aspects. Plenum Press, New York). Small quantities of both equine antitoxin and human botulinum immune globulin exist and are currently used to treat adult (Black and Gunn. (1980) Am. J. Med., 69: 567-570; Hibbs et al. (1996) Clin. Infect. Dis., 23: 337-340) and infant botulism (Arnon (1993). Clinical trial of human botulism immune globulin, p. 477-482. In B. R. DasGupta (ed.), Botulinum and Tetanus Neurotoxins: Neurotransmission and Biomedical Aspects. Plenum Press, New York) respectively.
Recombinant monoclonal antibody (mAb) could provide an unlimited supply of antitoxin free of infectious disease risk and not requiring human donors for plasmapheresis. Given the extreme lethality of the BoNTs, mAbs must be of high potency in order to provide an adequate number of doses at reasonable cost. The development of such mAbs has become a high priority research aim of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. While to date no single highly potent mAbs have been described, we recently reported that combining two to three mAbs could yield highly potent BoNT neutralization (Nowakowski et al. (2002) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 99: 11346-50).
The development of mAb therapy for botulism is complicated by the fact that there are at least seven BoNT serotypes (A-G) (Hatheway (1995) Curr. Top. Microbio. Immunol, 195: 55-75.) that show little, if any, antibody cross-reactivity. While only four of the BoNT serotypes routinely cause human disease (A, B, E, and F), there has been one reported case of infant botulism caused by BoNT C (Oguma et al. (1990) Lancet 336: 1449-1450), one outbreak of foodborne botulism linked to BoNT D (Demarchi, et al. (1958) Bull. Acad. Nat. Med., 142: 580-582), and several cases of suspicious deaths where BoNT G was isolated (Sonnabend et al. (1981) J. Infect. Dis., 143: 22-27). Aerosolized BoNT/C, D, and G have also been shown to produce botulism in primates by the inhalation route (Middlebrook and Franz (1997) Botulinum Toxins, chapter 33. In F. R. Sidell, E. T. Takafuji, D. R. Franz (eds.), Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare. TMM publications, Washington, D.C.), and would most likely also affect humans. Thus it is likely that any one of the seven BoNT serotypes can be used as a biothreat agent.
Variability of the BoNT gene and protein sequence within serotypes has also been reported and there is evidence that such variability can affect the binding of monoclonal antibodies to BoNT/A (Kozaki et al. (1998) Infect. Immun., 66: 4811-4816; Kozaki et al. (1995) Microbiol. Immunol., 39: 767-774). It is currently not clear the extent of such toxin variability within the different serotypes, nor its impact on the binding and neutralization capacity of monoclonal antibody panels.